Kosovo
Kosovo (Albanian: Kosovë / Kosova, Serbian: Косово и Метохија / Kosovo i Metohija) is a province of Serbia and Montenegro under UN administration. It is the subject of an ongoing territorial dispute between Serbia and Kosovo's majority ethnic Albanian population. Between 1996 and 1999, the Yugoslav Federal Army was engaged in continous campaigns against the separatist KLA (Kosovar Liberation Army), by then considered a terrorist organization and listed as such in the United States Department of State Foreign Terrorist Organizations list until 1998http://listserv.buffalo.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9905&L=twatch-l&D=1&O=D&F=P&P=3895. In 1999, following unilateral intervention from NATO, without the United Nations Security Council previous approval, the Yugoslav Army left Kosovo. Since the conclusion of the war, the province has been administered by the United Nations Interim Administrative Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). Kosovo's final status has yet to be determined; talks on this issue began February 20, 2006. Geography thumb|left|275px|Physical map of Kosovo With an area of 10,912 km² (4,203 mi²) and a population of over two million on the eve of the 1999 crisis, Kosovo borders Montenegro to the northwest, Serbia to the North and East; Macedonia to the south, and Albania to the southwest. The largest cities are Prishtinë/Pristina the capital, with an estimated 500,000 inhabitants, and Prizren in the southwest with 120,000: five other towns have populations in excess of 50,000. History Evidence show that the region of Kosovo has been inhabited by Illyrian tribes since the Bronze Age. In ancient times the area has been known as Dardania and was settled by a tribe with the same name. The Dardani were of Illyrian and Thracian stock and it's widley disputed if the Albanians are direct descendants of the Illyrians. Illyrians organised resistance against Greeks and Romans for hundreds of years but after the long wars of Illyrian tribes against intruders, the region was later occupied by the Roman Empire under Emperor Augustus. When the Roman Empire split in 395 A.D., the Kosovo region came under the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire. According to De administrando imperio the Slavs, who later would form the ethnic group of Serbs, came to the territories of roughly modern-day Kosovo in the 6th and 7th centuries. They were invited to settle in the area south of Donau as farmers by Byzantine emperor Heraclius to protect the area from invaiding Avars. The slavs were Christianized in several waves between the 7th and 9th century with the last wave taking place between 867 and 874. But by then Kosovo was ruled by the Bulgarians from the 850s until 1014. In 1166 - 1168, a Serbian nobleman from Zeta, Stefan Nemanja, who called himself the King of Serbs, Albanians and Vallahians, asserted to the Grand Princely throne and conquered most of Kosovo in an uprising against the Byzantines. Nemanja was eventually defeated and had to return some of his conquests, and vouched to the Byzantine Emperor that he would not raise his hand against him. In 1183, Nemanja embarked on a new offensive with the Hungarians after the Byzantine Emperor's death. Nemanja's son, Stephen II the First-crowned of Nemanja, recorded Nemanja's conquests, as Nemanja restored Kosovo from the Greeks, the border of the Serbian realm reaching the river of Lab. King of Serbs Stephen II finished the inclusion of the Kosovo territories in 1208, by which time he had conquered Prizren and Lipljan, and moved the border of his realm to the Sharr/Šar mountains. After the Empire of Tsar Stefan Dušan fell into disarray prior to his death in 1355, feudal anarchy caught up with the country during the reign of Tsar Stefan Uroš V. The area of Kosovo became a part of Prince Lazar of Moravian Serbia's domain. The Ottomans invaded the realm and met the coalition of South East European nobility on 28 June 1389, near Prishtina/Priština. The coalition consisted of Serbs, Bosnians, Albanians, Croats, Hungarians, Poles and even a contingent of Saxon mercenaries. The epic Battle of Kosovo followed, in which Prince Lazar himself lost his life and the coalition was broken. Through the cunning of Miloš Obilić Sultan Murad was murdered and the new Sultan Beyazid had, despite winning the battle, to retreat to consolidate his power. Both Prince Lazar and Miloš Obilić were canonised by the Serbian Orthodox Church for their efforts in the battle. The local House of Branković came to prominence as the local lords of Kosovo, under Vuk Branković, with the temporary fall of the Serbian Despotate in 1439. Another great battle occurred between the Hungarian troops supported by (self-proclaimed King) Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, and Ottoman troops supported by the Brankovićs in 1448. Skanderbeg's troops which were going to help John Hunyadi were stopped by the Brankovic's troops, who was more or less a Turkish Vassal. Hungarian King John Hunyadi lost the battle after a 2-day fight, but essentially stopped the Ottoman advance northwards. Kosovo then became vassalaged to the Ottoman Empire, until its direct incorporation after the final fall of Serbia in 1459. The Ottomans brought Islamisation with them, particularly in towns, and later also created the Vilayet of Kosovo as one of the Ottoman territorial entities. This brought a great shift, as the Orthodox population (Serbian, Bulgarian, and Greek) began to lose its majority when masses of Turks and Albanians (Muslims or Catholics) moved to Kosovo. During the Islamisation many churches and holy ortodox places were razed to the ground or turned into Mosques. Kosovo was taken by the Austrian forces during the Great War of 1683 - 1699 with help of 5000 Albanians and their leader, a Catholic Archbishop Pjetër Bogdani. The archbishop died of plague during the war, and his grave was later reopened, with his body scattered and given to the dogs by the Ottomans because of his role as a leader of the rebellion. In 1690, the Serbian Patriarch of Peć Arsenije III, who previously escaped a certain death, led 30,000 families from Kosovo, to evade Ottoman wrath since Kosovo had just been retaken by the Ottomans. The people that followed him were probably mostly Serbs, but it's possible also people of other different ethnic origins followed him. Due to the terror from the Ottomans, other migrations of Orthodox people from the Kosovo and Metohija area continued throughout the 18th century. It is also noted that some Serbs adopted Islam and some even gradually fused with the predominantly Albanian Moslems and adopted their culture and even language. In 1878, with the Berlin Conference, Serbia gained what is today known as Southern Serbia, a region as large as Kosovo. In less than two months, the region was ethnically cleansed and its population was relocated to today's Kosovo, Macedonia, and largely Turkey. They inhabited almost every Kosovo and Macedonian town escaping from the Serbian army and population were comitting against unarmed civilians. This is best described by Leon Trotsky, who was the a reporter for the 'Pravda' newspaper at the time. These populations are now known as 'muhaxher' (which means 'refugee') and are the ancestors of many who are still known by their same surnames, Muhaxheri. It is also estimated that 400.000 Serbs were clensed from the Vilayet of Kosovo between 1876 and 1912, especially during the Greek-Ottoman war in 1897. (see Demographic history of Kosovo) As a response of Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek nationalism, Albanians formed the League of Prizren in Prizren. Hundreds of Albanian leaders from all over Albania gathered and discussed the urgent issues concerning them. They successfully opposed any Serbian invasion attemps. Serbia complained to the Western Powers that the promised territories were not being handed over because Ottomans were hesitating to do so. Western Powers put pressure on the Ottomans and in 1881, the Ottoman Army started fighting against Albanians. The Prizren League created a Provisional Government with a President, Prime Minister (Ymer Prizreni)and Ministries of War (Sylejman Vokshi) and Foreign Ministry (Abdyl Frashëri). After three years of war, the Albanians were defeated. Many of the leaders were executed or imprisoned. In 1910, an Albanian uprising spread from Priština and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan's visit to Kosovo in June 1911. The Aim of the League of Prizren as to unite the four Albanian Vilayets by merging the majority of Albanian inhabitants within the Ottoman Empire into one Albanian State. However at that time Serbs have consisted about 40% of Kosovo's overall population and were opposing the Albanian nationalism along with other Slavs and Turks in Kosovo. In 1912 during the Balkan Wars, Kosovo and Albania were conquered by Serbia while eastern part (called Metohija by orthodox) of Kosovo was captured by Montenegro. Serbia aimed at ethnically cleansing Kosovo of its Albanian population, but it was negotiated with Turkey for the Albanians to be transferred into Turkey, with relative success. In 1912, Albania declared independence and a year later, in 1913 (Conference of London), Albania was recognized as an independent state without Kosovo, as it already belonged to Serbia. In winter of 1915-16 Kosovo saw a large exodus of its Serbian population and army; hundreds of thousands soldiers had died of starvation, extreme weather and Albanian reprisals as they were approaching the Allies in Corfu and Thessaloniki. (See Serbia in WWI). After the 1918-1929 period of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the 1929-1941 Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis forces. The greatest part of Kosovo became a part of Italian-controlled Fascist Albania, and smaller bits by the Nazi-Fascist Tsardom of Bulgaria and Nazi German-occupied Kingdom of Serbia. Since the Albanians had decided in the Conference of Bujan that Kosovo would remain Albanian, they have started immediately a ethnic cleansing of the non Albanians in the occupied Kosovo. The infamous SS Division Skanderbeg is known to committed horrible crimes. Tens of thousands of Serbs lost their lives and around 75,000 Serbs fled Kosovo during the war. Hundreds of thousands more would leave in the following decades, following the shift of power in Kosovo. After the war Kosovo gained the status of a province within Yugoslavia. In the 1974 constitution, Kosovo gained more powers and was advanced to a status of which was almost that of a republic, but not in name. It was part of a Yugoslav Federation to some extent and part of Serbia to some extent. It is disputed but there was some intention that Kosovo should become the seventh republic. For a better picture of the position of Kosovo within YU-Federation, it is best to give the example that no decision could be taken at the Federative level without the vote and consent of Kosovo. In 1981 Kosovar students organized protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia. Those protests were harshly attacked by the Serbian government. In 1986, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts published a document Memorandum which contained heavily Serbian nationalist rhetoric. With Serbian nationalism on the increase, Slobodan Milosević came to power. In 1989, following Milosevic's rise of power (especially the Gazimestan gathering, marking 600 years from the Battle of Kosovo) the autonomy of Kosovo was revoked. Most Albanians organized a peaceful resistance movement. Most Albanians were expelled from their jobs, Albanian schools and the medical care system were shut down, and Kosovo was put under an effective apartheid. On July 2, 1990 Kosovo parliament declared Kosovo an independent country. In September of that year, the parliament, meeting in secrecy in the town of Kaçanik, adopted the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo. Two years later, Kosovo organized a referendum which was observed by international organisations but was not recognized internationally. With an 80% turnout, 98% voted for Kosovo to be independent. In the early nineties, Albanians organized a parallel state system which managed the non-violent resistance movement and organized a parallel system of education and healthcare, among other things. With the events in Bosnia and Croatia coming to an end, the Serb government started moving Serb refugees from Croatia and Bosnia to Kosovo. In a number of cases, Albanian families were expelled from their apartments to make space for the refugees, only a few of whom remain in Kosovo today. After the Dayton Agreement and numerous atrocities commited by Serb security forces inside Kosovo, the disillusioned Albanians organized into the Kosovo Liberation Army and started a guerilla war for liberation. The Serb reaction was stiff in plundering Albanian villages and executing civilians. This triggered a 78-day NATO campaign. During the conflict, some 12,000 Kosovar Albanians were killed and 500,000 to 800,000 expelled. Some 3,000 Albanians are still missing. The number of Serbian soldier, policemen, and civilian deaths is considered to be around 3,000, but it's also disputed to be much more, as 2,800 people of Serb origin are still missing, believed dead. With the arrival of NATO, a large number of Serbs fled the region, estimated at 100,000 by the UNHCR. Around 120,000 remain in Kosovo and oppose any rule by Albanians. The Serbian government usually claims that some 250,000 Serbs have fled Kosovo. This instills fear within the Albanians and makes them oppose return projects. There are now, according to the European Stability Initiative, some 65,000 Kosovo Serbs living in Serbia. Some 20,000 may go back, mainly rural Serbs, while urban Serbs have largely integrated into Serbia and will not go back to Kosovo regardless of what their status will be. Many Serbs fear to return to their homes since it's proven not to be safe for them, even with UNMIK protection, notably the unrest in 2004. The Status talks started in February 2006, it is set to end in the course of the year. The security of the minorites, must be provided by Kosovo Albanian goverments, but it is disputed if the Kosovo Albanian Institutions can grant theese guarantees. The E.U. still is said that they will not raise any demands for an independent Kosovo. Disputes over language, culture and citizenship The territory is most widely known as 'Kosovo' and this has become the standard in international and United Nations usage. In Albanian this name becomes 'Kosova', which is more often found within Kosovo and in official use by the Provisional Institutions, though both Albanian and Serbian are official languages. Wherever political and cultural sensitivity are particularly important, the international community will use 'Kosovo/Kosova' to describe the province and adopt a similar standard for many place names. While the formal title 'Republic of Kosova' has fallen out of use with the integration of Kosovo Albanian politics into the UNMIK system, the formal Serbian title 'Kosovo i Metohija' remains in colloquial and official use in parts of Kosovo and in Serbia proper, where parallel institutions for Kosovo remain until final status is resolved. The question of what to call the inhabitants of Kosovo collectively has also aroused debate. The two words accepted by the Oxford English Dictionary are "Kosovar" (borrowed from Albanian), the most widely used variant in English, by far, and "Kosovan" (using the English rules for demonyms) much less used. As Kosovo has no formal statehood, current international usage is to refer to Kosovo Serbs and Kosovo Albanians. Most of the Albanian-descended community in Kosovo would prefer the use of Kosovar or Kosovan because of the attendant political overtones, while the Serb minority continue to think of themselves as Serb or Serbian (from Kosovo). As for language and citizenship, so for cultural and political symbols. Kosovo had its own flag, when it used to have a province status within former Yugoslavia. The former province of Kosovo was identified with a flag similar to the one of Albania, but had a large star on the right-handside. The Albanian flag is used unofficially by the Kosovo Albanian-dominated administration and the vast majority of Kosovo Albanians; although recently the flag of the presidency is being used as an unofficial flag of Kosovo, as could be seen during Ibrahim Rugova's funeral http://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Rugova. The Serb-inhabited area of north Kosovo uses only the flag of Serbia, which is formally the flag of Serbia, although this usage is rejected by virtually all Kosovo Albanians and other smaller minorities apart from Serbs and some Roma. Politics and international status Kosovo's international status is anomalous. The administration is presently conducted by the United Nations with little or no involvement on the part of the Serbian government (under Security Council resolution 1244 of 10 June 1999; see Security Council Resolutions 1999). The supervision of the government of Kosovo is the responsibility of the United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). Under the terms of the Kumanovo agreement and subsequent UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which ended the Kosovo War, security is provided by the Kosovo Force (KFOR), which is led by NATO and is answerable to UNMIK. UNMIK has so far established a provisional assembly, provisional government and the office of provisional president, which are legislative and executive bodies under UNMIK's control. Control of security, justice and external affairs are still under full UNMIK control. Elections for the Assembly of Kosovo were held in November 2001 and again in 2004 and were qualified as the most democratic elections in the Balkans. Ibrahim Rugova was elected as president in March 2002. The seat of the assembly, government and president is in Prishtina/Pristina. So far, the parliament has enacted and UNMIK approved a constitutional framework, customs code, two criminal codes and some 200 laws. The Constitutional Framework enacted by the Kosovo Assembly (with UN Security Council approval) has adopted a policy of affirmative action in the assembly to ensure that Kosovo's minorities are properly represented. Out of 120 seats, 10 are reserved for Serbs and another 10 for non-Albanian minorities, while the remaining 100 seats are elected through direct voting. UNMIK does not take account, though, the Serbs and other non-Albanians who have left Kosovo as a result of interethnic tension, many of whom are unable to reclaim lost property or safely to attend elections. The process of 'returns' of these displaced persons has yet to begin in earnest, as a result of insufficient funding and a perceived inability of the UN to control violence against minority groups, as well as a concern on the part of Kosovo Albanians that an increased number of Serbs will undermine the chances for an independent Kosovo. Kosovo is still recognised internationally as a part of former Yugoslavia. Its final status has not yet been resolved, (talks on the subject started on 20 February 2006), and considerable difficulties lie ahead in balancing the irreconcilable Kosovo Albanian, Kosovo Serb and Belgrade positions. The Kosovo Albanians reject Serbian sovereignty and demand secession from the country. On the other side, Serbia is opposed to yielding any of its territory, and domestic opinion, supported by the existence of a centuries-old written, material and architectural history, continues to see the province as the heartland of Serbian culture. The international community is becoming less and less reluctant to see Kosovo become independent, as last Contact Group and UN Security Council meetings showed. The NATO countries insisted on the republican borders as the only acceptable solution during the wars in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina in the 1990s, but this does not rule out that they might revisit this in the case of Kosovo vis-à-vis Serbia and Montenegro. Questions have also been raised about whether an independent Kosovo would be politically or economically viable, given its small size, the state of its economy (though Kosovo is larger than the independent Grand Duchy of Luxembourg). But once status is resolved, and Kosovo has access to international monetary institutions the economic development will be possible. The organized crime is also a very big problem in Kosovo, like in the rest of the region. In early 2006, western diplomants have come out clearly in support of an independent Kosovo, with guarantees for the minorities. UNMIK is issuing travel documents which serve instead of passports in countries which recognise them, and issues identity cards and car plates, which again are valid only in certain countries. UNMIK has created a police force (the Kosovo Police Service) with employees from all ethnic communities (Albanian, Serbian, Roma, Bosniac, etc) and manages the province's railways and airline (Kosova Airlines). The airspace and borders of Kosovo are controlled by KFOR. The European Union runs the Kosovo economy in cooperation with the Kosovo institutions. The EU has initiated the Stabilisation Tracking Mechanism, a special and separate track of EU integration for Kosovo. On January 21, 2006, the President of Kosovo, Dr.Ibrahim Rugova, died at age 61. On February 10, 2006, Fatmir Sejdiu was elected to be the second President by an 80-12 vote in parliament. On March 10, 2006, Agim Çeku was appointed as the Prime Minister of Kosovo, during a voting by the Assembly of Kosovo. Çeku is a Lieutenant General and has served in Yugoslav and Croatian armies, eventually coming back to Kosovo to head the KLA and subsequentlt served as a Commander of the KPC. Economy UNMIK declared the euro to be the official currency of the province in 2001 in the course of implementing a currency reform. This was undertaken to replace the previous widespread use of the Deutschmark, which had become the de facto currency even before the 1999 war. However, the Serbian dinar remains an official currency, used principally in the Kosovo Serb enclaves; it is only used sporadically outside of them. Most trade is conducted using the euro; Kosovo's administration uses the euro exclusively, and all commercial banks use the euro as the primary currency. Of other international currencies, the United States dollar and Swiss franc are the most widespread. Demographics Ethnic Albanians comprise almost 90% of the population of the province. In the aftermath of the conflict some one thousand non-Albanians, particularly Serbs and Roma either followed Serb soldiers as they withdrew, were forcibly expelled by the Albanian majority or fled the province to escape perceived threats of revenge by Albanians(note:Most of Kosovo Serbs were in the ruling administration of Milosevic's installed apartheid in Kosovo). The non-Albanian population of Kosovo has continued to fall since the arrival of NATO and the UN as a result of violence, perceived intimidation, and economic hardship. Many still live in communal camps in Serbia or Macedonia cared for by international relief agencies. However, there have been many attempts by Kosovo's government to resettle non-Albanians in the region which have largely been successful, including the resettlement of well over one thousand Serbians and Roma from 2004 - 2005. The Kosovo government has been widely praised for paying for the rebuilding of Serb houses in the aftermath of the 2004 riots. This has been marked as the first case of reparations in the history of the Balkans. Still many of the non-Albanian population have fears since their security is so uncertain. Threats and vandalism are still very common in many areas. According to the 2000 Living Standard Measurement Survey of the Statistical Office of Kosovohttp://www.sok-kosovo.org/pdf/population/Kosovo_population.pdf, Kosovo's total population is estimated between 1,8 and 2,0 million in the following ethnic proportions: * 88% Albanians (between 1,584,000 and 1,733,600) * 7% Serbs (between 126,000 and 140,000) * 3% Muslims and Bosniaks (54 to 60 thousand) * 2% Roma (36 to 40 thousand) Roma in Mitrovica Camps * 1% Turks (18 to 20 thousand) However, the figures are highly disputable and may presently include an Albanian majority well above 90 percent. Presidents *Ibrahim Rugova, 1992-2006 (deceased) *Fatmir Sejdiu, 2006-present Prime Ministers *Bajram Rexhepi, 2002-2004 *Ramush Haradinaj, 2004-2005 *Bajram Kosumi, 2005-2006 *Agim Çeku, 2006-present Gallery Image:Prishtina.jpg|Prishtina/Priština Image:Prizen kosovo.jpg|Prizren Image:Gjakova.jpg|Gjakova/Đakovica Image:French Peugeot P4 dsc06852.jpg|KFOR Image:Skenderbeuinprishtina.jpg|Skenderbeg Image:Slava2005 6.jpg|Visoki Dečani monastery See also * Assembly of Kosovo * Government of Kosovo * Prime Minister of Kosovo * President of Kosovo * Post and Telecom of Kosovo * Battle of Kosovo (1389) * Municipalities of Kosovo * National awakening and the birth of Albania * Subdivisions of Kosovo * Unrest in Kosovo (about the March 2004 unrest) External links * Kosovo and the Balkans - Discussion Forum * Kosovo as the price of Euro-Atlantic integrations * * RTK - Kosova's public television - news in Albanian, Serbian, Turkish and Roma * Restaurant in Kosovo - Restaurant in Kosova *Human Rights in Kosovo: As Seen, As Told. Volume I, October 1998 - June 1999. * Kosovo maps from the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection * A collection of photos from Kosovo Pro-Albanian * Balkan Update- A blog with news, analysis and the lates updates from Balkans * Economic Initiative for Kosovo - "...latest news, analysis and publications from the Kosovar economy" * Albanian.com - general information * Kosova e lirë (Free Kosova) -- Material about Kosovars and Albanians in Albanian language. * General information from Beqiraj.com (in German) * General information from Beqiraj.com (in Albanian) * Why Independence for Kosovo? A summary of the case for an independent Kosova by two Prishtina intellectuals Pro-Serb *[http://www.kosovo.com/sk/history/kosovo_origins/default.htm Hugo Roth, Kosovo Origins]: a historian's comprehensive overview * Kosovo.com Serbian Orthodox Church's official website on Kosovo * Account of destroyed Serbian Orthodox churches in Kosovo and Metohija * Kosovo Newsgroup archive * Coordination Center of SCG and the Republic of Serbia for Kosovo * Serbian Government Kosovo-Metohija site * Eastern Orthodox Resource Centre * Southern Serbia: The second Kosovo? * The Serbs Were Not Oppressing the Albanians Historical and Investigative Research Francisco Gil-White. 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